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June 2, 2026
Turning Ammonia Into Energy
Ammonia can be burned, used in specific types of fuel cells, or converted into hydrogen which is itself used in a fuel cell. Burning ammonia does not produce carbon emissions, but unwanted reactions during the combustion process can release nitrous oxide, a greenhouse gas more potent than carbon dioxide. Ammonia combustion must be carefully managed and conducted at very high temperatures to reduce nitrous oxide emissions to near zero. Solid oxide fuel cells that use ammonia instead of hydrogen as a fuel to generate electricity are an alternative to combustion, but more research and development are needed to achieve a commercially viable technology. Most types of fuel cells only run on hydrogen, but ammonia can serve as a hydrogen storage medium. Ammonia is cheaper and easier to store than hydrogen because it can be stored as a liquid at low pressures or at relatively mild refrigeration levels. In addition, a widespread international distribution network for ammonia already exists.
The world runs on ammonia, a critical resource that plays a key role in most fertilizers. Nitrogen fertilizers, a majority of which are synthesized using ammonia, are used to grow crops that feed almost half of the world’s population, making ammonia critical to global food security. Like hydrogen, ammonia—which is three parts hydrogen and one part nitrogen—can be used in engines or fuel cells to produce power and electricity without releasing carbon dioxide (as an added benefit, ammonia is cheaper and easier to store than hydrogen). Ammonia's use as a clean fuel is particularly appealing in global shipping, where limited battery capacity for long trip durations is a major constraint. Ammonia is also a promising form of long-term clean energy storage: carbon-free renewable energy can be used to produce “green” ammonia, which can then be burned or used in a fuel cell. An Oxford University analysis found that green ammonia “could become a decisive element in the global effort to reduce carbon emissions” if used at scale for energy storage. Experts estimate that hydrogen-based fuels, including ammonia, must account for 30% of all transportation fuels by 2050 to reach global net-zero emissions.
he production of ammonia is the most carbon emissions-intensive of any chemical. Traditional ammonia production relies on hydrogen derived from fossil fuels. Currently, 97% of the hydrogen used for ammonia production is produced from fossil fuels, and as a result, 1.3% of total global greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to ammonia production. The greenhouse gases emitted by these fossil fuels contribute to global warming, which greatly exacerbates a host of issues, ranging from droughts to wildfires, that Congress is looking to combat. Demand for ammonia is expected to grow by 1.1% annually until at least 2050 due to agricultural needs and the emergence of renewable energy storage and transport applications. For ammonia to reach its full potential in our carbon-free future, it needs to become green—decarbonizing the ammonia production process is critical.
Ammonia is produced through an energy-intensive reaction called the Haber-Bosch process, in which hydrogen and atmospheric nitrogen are reacted under high temperature and pressure using an iron catalyst. As previously noted, 97% of the hydrogen used in the Haber-Bosch process currently comes from coal gasification or steam methane reforming, both of which release greenhouse gases. To completely decarbonize the Haber-Bosch process, both the energy and the hydrogen used in the reaction must come from clean sources.
Reducing Reliance on Fossil Fuels for Food Security
In addition to reducing carbon emissions, green ammonia would also help reduce our reliance on fossil fuels for food production. Ammonia-based nitrogen fertilizers are essential to global food security as they are used to produce around half of the global protein supply. Due to ammonia’s dependence on fossil fuels, fluctuations in energy markets can have ripple effects on agriculture and food systems, as recently demonstrated by spikes in the price of fertilizers because of the war with Iran. High ammonia prices, driven by fossil fuel scarcity, lead to higher fertilizer prices and lower fertilizer use, resulting in higher grocery prices and—in extreme cases—food shortages. The impacts of high ammonia prices are most felt by low-income countries, where small-scale farmers who produce a majority of the local food supply can no longer afford fertilizer. A switch to fossil-free green ammonia production would protect natural security, promote international equity, and stabilize food prices, all while protecting the environment.
At least 90% of the energy consumed by an ammonia plant is used for fossil-fuel-intensive hydrogen production. Hydrogen is hard to transport over long distances due to its high-pressure requirements and propensity for leakage from its small particle size, and thus must be produced on-site. The energy used to run ammonia production and hydrogen generation processes is also a major source of emissions, since the Haber-Bosch reaction accounts for 2% of global energy use. In addition to decarbonizing hydrogen production, Haber-Bosch plants themselves must be powered by clean electricity, such as wind or solar power, to reach net-zero ammonia production.
Some researchers are exploring the use of renewable natural gas (RNG) or carbon capture and storage (CCS) retrofits to reduce greenhouse gas emissions during hydrogen generation. RNG is produced via the decomposition of organic waste in oxygen-free conditions and may be used as an exact substitute for the fossil natural gas currently used in Haber-Bosch plants. When combined with CCS technology, the use of RNG can result in net-zero or even net-negative emissions that would not be possible with fossil natural gas.
Conventional ammonia production plants retrofitted with CCS can achieve emission reductions of 60-85%, though the efficacy of CCS is widely debated. The resulting ammonia is known as “blue” ammonia. Overreliance on nascent CCS technology hinders the emergence of truly climate-friendly technology by allowing continued fossil fuel use and serves as a Band-Aid for a more comprehensive problem. Still, researchers from Carnegie Science suggest that RNG and CCS can be used as transitional tools to help move toward net-zero solutions without disrupting global food supply chains. Researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have devised a plant that combines green and blue ammonia production processes (producing green ammonia releases a lot of oxygen, which is usually vented into the air but can instead be used to produce blue ammonia). While not totally clean, hybrid plants like this one could help aid the transition to green ammonia production.
Clean Sources of Hydrogen
For more information about clean sources of hydrogen, check out EESI’s topic page and articles about Hydrogen and Fuel Cells.
Given the energy intensity of the Haber-Bosch process, it is worth considering alternative methods for ammonia production, including light-based catalysis and the use of non-dinitrogen-based feedstocks. More research is needed to make these methods viable, scalable, and cost-effective.
The world’s first large-scale renewable energy-powered green ammonia plant was established in Denmark as a collaboration between Skovgaard Energy, Topsoe, and Vestas, with substantial financial support from the Danish government. The plant adapts to fluctuations in energy output from wind turbines and solar panels to produce hydrogen via electrolysis and then ammonia. This approach is cheaper than storing hydrogen and longer duration than using batteries.
Renewable Hydrogen
Decentralized, small-scale ammonia and fertilizer production plants sited near farms and using renewables can produce ammonia while reducing emissions from production and transportation. The Kenya Nut Company in Nairobi is doing just this with a farm-adjacent fertilizer production facility that uses solar energy to generate hydrogen from water, which it then reacts with nitrogen in the air to produce ammonia. Researchers at the University of Minnesota have developed a similar system that uses wind turbines to produce ammonia for use in fertilizer, energy storage, heat, and tractor power.
Experimental plants across the United States, Europe, and Asia have revealed unresolved issues in the green ammonia production process, such as accidental ammonia leakage and the release of highly concentrated salt from plant water treatment for hydrogen production. Another issue is cost—fossil-fuel ammonia is still generally much cheaper to produce than ammonia from renewable electricity, though this is subject to change as their prices fluctuate. Experts predict that green ammonia will one day become cheaper than fossil-fuel ammonia, but government intervention is needed to subsidize its production and build new economies of scale.
State governments such as Louisiana's are beginning to incentivize private-sector investments in cleaner ammonia and hydrogen. To secure a $4 billion investment in what is expected to become the world's largest low-carbon ammonia facility, Louisiana proposed a $6 million performance-based grant as well as workforce development. Minnesota has been considering the Minnesota Made Ammonia Act (HF2103), which would fund projects related to the production, use, and research of green hydrogen and ammonia for fertilizer. Among the entities funded by the bill would be CleanCounts (for ammonia, hydrogen, and renewable energy certificate tracking), the Great Plains Institute (for identifying new opportunities for wind-produced or other forms of green ammonia), TalusAg (for the operation of two green fertilizer production systems), and the University of Minnesota (for research and development related to green ammonia and hydrogen).
At the federal level, the Trump Administration's cancellation of clean hydrogen hubs that had been introduced by the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (P.L. 117-58) has significantly impeded the advancement of clean hydrogen and, by extension, clean ammonia. However, in October 2025, the Department of Energy awarded a $1.5 billion loan to a coal-to-blue-ammonia Samsung facility to produce ammonia-based fertilizer in Indiana.
Several bills have been introduced in the 119th Congress that aim to curb emissions from ammonia production by incentivizing green ammonia. The Climate Pollution Standard and Community Investment Act of 2025 (H.R.6918), introduced in December 2025, seeks to regulate greenhouse gas emissions, including from ammonia production, through carbon caps, fees, and regulations. Another bill, H.R.6637, would impose taxes on industrial sources of greenhouse gas emissions, such as ammonia production.
Ammonia is a crucial chemical for the green energy transition and for global food security, but its production is the most emissions-intensive of any chemical. Given the significant role of ammonia in agriculture and its potential significant role in renewable energy storage, its production must be decarbonized to meet net-zero carbon emissions goals by 2050. To this end, the federal government has the opportunity to make significant investments in cleaner ammonia, either by supporting green ammonia and hydrogen technologies or by disincentivizing fossil-fuel ammonia.
*Credit for thumbnail image: eutrophication&hypoxia via Flickr.
Author: Aastha Singh
Advancing science-based solutions for a sustainable, resilient, and equitable world
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